Ethnic Identity in Imperial China

An Online Sourcebook

Annotated translations of primary sources for the study of ethnicity in Chinese history, from the ancient dynasties to the nineteenth century

Future chapters

Chapter 6: Inner Asian immigrants

Chapter 7: Foreign religions

Chapter 8: “Barbarian” emperors

Chapter 9: “Han” identity

Chapter 10: The Qing empire

Detail from "Barbarian Royalty Worshiping the Buddha," attributed to Zhao Guangfu (ca. 923-976): Sixteen foreign rulers pay homage to the Buddha, who is seated on a lotus throne with two disciples and two guardians.
Detail from “Barbarian Royalty Worshiping the Buddha,” attributed to Zhao Guangfu (ca. 923-976). Cleveland Museum of Art.