For information on this source, see source 1.2.

Although this anecdote predates the empire and has nothing to do with territorial expansion, the phrase “the Son of Heaven’s defenses lay adjacent to the barbarians of the four quarters” later became a stock expression for justifying an anti-expansionist and defensive foreign policy, one that sought to maintain the frontiers where they were rather than extending them further into “barbarian” lands.

In its original context, however, the phrase was part of an argument against relying on a fortified capital city for a state’s security. In 519 BCE, Wu inflicted a major defeat on the armies of Chu and its vassals at Jifu (see source 1.5), prompting fears of an invasion of the Chu heartland itself. The Chu chief minister responded by constructing defensive walls for the Chu capital, Ying, but his colleague the Governor of Shen criticized this as a losing strategy since it involved no effort at strengthening Chu’s border defenses. As is common for prophecies made in the Zuozhuan, this prediction came true in 506 BCE: Wu defeated the Chu army again at Boju and this time captured and briefly occupied the Chu capital.

The translation below is adapted from the complete translation of the Zuozhuan by Stephen Durrant, Wai-yee Li, and David Schaberg, Zuo Tradition/Zuozhuan (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2016).

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Lord Zhao, Year 23 (519 BCE)

In his capacity as chief minister of Chu, Nang Wa fortified Ying. Xu, the Governor of Shen, said, “Nang Wa is certain to lose Ying. If it cannot be defended, a wall is useless. In ancient times, the Son of Heaven’s defenses lay adjacent to the barbarians (Yi) of the four quarters. When the Son of Heaven’s power declined, his defenses lay adjacent to the lords. The defenses of the lords lay adjacent to their neighbors on all sides. When the lords’ power declined, their defenses lay on their own borders on all sides. In their caution over these borders, they formed alliances on all sides. The people were at ease in the countryside, and their labor during the growing season was fruitful. The people suffered neither from disturbances within the state nor from alarms originating outside. What use did they have for walls? Now, although Chu fears Wu as a threat, the fortifications are all built at Ying. The area thus defended is very small. When we have declined to the point where we cannot even defend our borders, how can we not lose Ying?”